Sustainable Multilingualism / Darnioji daugiakalbystė

EDITORIAL

2025-06-21T16:26:20+03:00

Dear Sustainable Multilingualism community,

Welcome to the 26th issue of the journal.

In his book The Crucible of Language, Vyvyan Evans wrote:

“Like many other species, we are minded creatures: we store representations of the world around us, and of our own internal bodily states. But unlike other species, we also have language: an unheralded means of packaging these representations – our thoughts – and rendering them public. < …> Making thought public is the hallmark of communication” (2015, p. 3).

The 20 researchers who chose our journal to make their thoughts public, focus on diverse aspects of multilingual theory and practices and come from 8 different countries of Europe and Asia (East, South, Southeast, and Western Asia).

Multilingual Practices in Language Policy Implementation section presents the study by Julia Cervera Moya and Julia Valeiras-Jurado who discuss multimodality and mediation in the policies regulating the official schools of languages and present the case of the Valencian community in Spain, approaching mediation from the perspective of social semiotic multimodal analysis.

Society. Identity. Language Maintenance section features three studies. Alona Shyba and Ineta Dabašinskienė discuss the change in language attitudes and practices among Ukrainian war refugees who arrived in Lithuania seeking for shelter. The study results reveal the complex transformations that female research participants-refugees undergo, having experienced “the traumatic experiences of enemy’s occupation, refuge, lost family members, and homes” and aiming to adapt in the host country, “initially relying on Russian to facilitate communication”, then trying to “gradually transition to Ukrainian”, feeling the “urgent need to preserve the Ukrainian language and culture, as the most powerful factors of their national identity”. Angelica Peccini explores “Language attitudes and self-reflection in immigrant women through the Lithuanian language: A prism of identities in motion” and Omar Mohammad-Ameen Ahmad Hazaymeh explores “Bilingualism in the Jordanian-Russian family residing in Jordan and its impact on communication between its members”.

Language Use and Education in Multilingual and Multicultural Settings section presents four articles: the study by Aybek Sibel and Cem Can focuses on formulaic sequences, investigating “the use of the most frequent 3- and 4-word lexical bundles in the TICLE, the Turkish component of the International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE), and the Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays (LOCNESS) as the control parallel corpus in their research on multiword units or formulaic utterances in their article “Comparative analysis of lexical bundles in academic writings by native English speakers and Turkish EFL learners”, whereas Nivedita Malini Barua explores the role of home language(s) in developing reading comprehension in English in a group of tertiary level ESL students in a university in India. The research results prove that working collaboratively and using “their own home language/s for discussion and taking notes” result in more detailed notes and summaries by students. A group of researchers from Malaysia – Lichao Guo, Nik Aloesnita Binti Nik Mohd Alwi, Abdullah Adnan Bin Mohamed, Li Changlin – present a systematic review of “cross-linguistic influence in additional language acquisition, focusing on how learners’ awareness of differences between their primary and target languages impacts their writing competence.” Jing Xuan Tian presents a pilot study aiming to determining how Mandarin speakers (MS) in Hong Kong acquire English (L2) and Cantonese (L3) pronunciation features, “how the three languages interact in their language learning process”, trying to “identify the pronunciation-related adjustment approaches that MS use to overcome L2 and L3 pronunciation challenges.

Issues in Translation section presents two studies: Aurelija Leonavičienė investigates censorship and self-censorship in interwar and soviet-era translations from French into Lithuania and concludes that “All the examples of translations of canonical French literature into Lithuanian suggest that during the interwar, censorship primarily targeted politically unacceptable revolutionary parts of the originals; whereas during the Soviet era, religious, political and ethical censorship became more widespread.” Lew Ya Ling, Naginder Kaur, Huzaifah A Hamid, and Hoe Foo Terng present their study “Guiding learners in using machine translation for second and foreign language writing: the case at Malaysian higher education”.

I hope you will find all the presented studies scientifically engaging, interesting, useful, and enriching.

However, before ending this brief Editorial, I will use this opportunity to introduce one event which appeared concurrently with this issue: the 8^th international conference Sustainable Multilingualism 2025 (SM25), organized by the Institute of Foreign Languages of Vytautas Magnus University and the Language Teachers’ Association of Lithuania and held in Kaunas, Lithuania, on May 28–30, 2025.

Although the primary focus of the SM25 was on language reclamation, preservation, and sustainability, as in the previous conferences, a wide range of themes on the key issues of multilingualism, the development of plurilingual competence, and language education were also addressed. Five keynote speakers from three continents honored our conference and presented their research on diversity of themes:

prof. dr. Karina Firkavičiūtė (Head of the Lithuanian Karaim Association of Culture, a civil servant of the EU Research Executive Agency, musicologist, and native Karaim language speaker) introduced Karaim — a Turkic West Kipchak group language spoken today exclusively in Lithuania by approximately 30 people in the community of about 200 people — in her keynote Karaim Language. Challenges to Survive.
A South Saami and Scottish Gaelic poet, traditional yoik singer, writer, literary scholar, and teacher Johan Sandberg McGuinne gave a keynote From Stoere Vaerie to Ubmejen jiännuo — Traditional Yoiking as a Tool in Saami Language Revitalisation. We had an opportunity to enjoy yoiking — traditional Saami singing, “a powerful tool in the ongoing language revitalisation process within the Saami homelands.”
dr. John W. Schwieter (researcher of cognitive and neuroscientific approaches to multilingualism and language acquisition, professor at Wilfrid Laurier University and McMaster University, Canada) discussed The Bilingual mental lexicon, language switching, and cognitive effects. I am happy to announce that professor has accepted our invitation to join the Editorial Board of our journal.
dr. Jūratė Ruzaitė (a researcher in sociolinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, language and ideology, researcher in Semantika-2 project that developed software for automatic detection of offensive online comments in Lithuanian, Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania) presented her keynote These are not just words: Hate speech, propaganda, and novel words for old prejudices.
dr. dr. Ghil’ad Zuckermann (listed among Australia's top 30 ”living legends of research" by “The Australian” (2024), the recipient of the Rubinlicht Prize for his outstanding contribution to Yiddish scholarship in 2023, the author of Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to language reclamation in Australia and Beyond (2020) and many other books and articles, professor at Flinders University (Adelaide), Australian Catholic University (Sydney), Australia) presented a keynote on Language reclamation and cross-fertilization: The emergence of a "Revival Language" called Israeli. It is with great honor that I acknowledge that professor Ghil’ad Zuckermann has been a member of Sustainable Multilingualism Editorial Board since2020.

The program featured two plenary sessions and parallel sections included over 120 presenters from nearly 20 countries worldwide who, together with 15 non-presenting participants, were engaged in discussions on more than 60 oral presentations and 15 poster presentations, ensuring a multidisciplinary, multilingual, and multicultural approach to sustainable multilingualism.

A round table discussion From policy to practice: University alliances and Plurilingualism rallied representatives from five university alliances to discuss issues of multilingualism in the university alliances. The conference languages were Lithuanian and English, but over 20 parallel panel sessions included presentations in French, German, Latvian, Spanish and Ukrainian, apart from Lithuanian and English.

Several presenters and keynote speakers will have their research published in upcoming issues of the journal. You are welcome to follow us on the journal website. Our 9^th Sustainable Multilingualism conference will be held in the spring of 2027 – hope to see you here, in Kaunas, Lithuania.

Traditionally, welcoming the 26th issue of the journal, I would like to take the opportunity to express my gratitude to all contributors: the authors who chose our journal to share their valuable research, competent reviewers who provided valuable constructive feedback and ideas for manuscript improvement, and the whole editorial team: executive editors and the technical support group (proofreaders, layout designers, and translators) whose conscientious efforts, thorough work, and belief in the mission of the journal allow us all to pursue the goal of sustaining multilingualism.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL BUNDLES IN ACADEMIC WRITINGS BY NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS AND TURKISH EFL LEARNERS

2024-08-21T21:18:17+03:00

Authentic language use frequently consists of repeated expressions called multiword units or formulaic utterances (Byrd & Coxhead, 2010), which serve as essential “building blocks of discourse in both spoken and written registers” (Biber & Barbieri, 2007, p. 263). Lexical bundles, a subset of formulaic sequences, are defined as "recurrent expressions, regardless of their idiomaticity, and regardless of their structural status" (Biber et al., 1999, p. 990). This study investigates the use of the most frequent 3- and 4-word lexical bundles in the TICLE, the Turkish component of the International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE), and the Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays (LOCNESS) as the control parallel corpus. The lexical bundles are classified according to their structural and functional characteristics based on the taxonomy developed by Biber et al. (2003; 2004). An interpretative contrastive analysis was conducted between the native (LOCNESS) and non-native (TICLE) data sets. The findings reveal that Turkish EFL learners overuse verb phrase fragments while underusing noun phrase and prepositional phrase fragments. Furthermore, texts in TICLE exhibit a lower lexical variety compared to those in LOCNESS. Regarding functional classification, although Turkish EFL learners produce fewer functional bundles overall, they tend to overuse a limited subset of them. These results suggest underlying issues in EFL pedagogy, particularly the need for explicit instruction on multiword units.

ROLE OF COLLABORATIVE READING IN LEARNERS’ HOME LANGUAGE(S) IN DEVELOPING READING COMPREHENSION IN ENGLISH

2025-02-20T07:43:30+02:00

This paper reports the findings of a study that the researcher undertook in order to develop the reading comprehension of a group of tertiary level ESL students. The researcher teaches in the department of English Language Teaching to a linguistically diverse class of thirty four students in an Indian university. It was observed that the students were not able to critically engage with the text, and the assignments that were submitted indicated a lack of understanding of the course materials. An intervention was planned which aimed to determine whether the use of home languages while making notes facilitates the comprehension of challenging academic texts. In the first stage of the study, the participants read the texts on their own and made notes on them based on which they wrote individual summaries in English. In the second stage, the participants discussed the content in English in groups of three and made notes based on which they wrote individual summaries in English. In the last stage, the participants discussed the content in their home language/s in the same groups and made notes in whichever language/s they were comfortable in. Then they wrote individual summaries in English based on the notes. The scores for each stage were compared. The findings revealed that the participants successfully produced more detailed notes and summaries when they worked collaboratively and used their own home language/s for discussion and taking notes.

A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW: INFLUENCE OF INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES ON LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND WRITING COMPETENCE

2025-02-20T07:46:00+02:00

This article reviews existing literature on cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in additional language acquisition, focusing on how learners’ awareness of differences between their primary and target languages impacts their writing competence. The study has its special focus on intermediate-level language differences, specifically expression patterns and usage preferences, and their influence on Chinese English learners’ writing. A systematic search of recent studies (last 15 years) was conducted using Google Scholar and CNKI with keywords such as “cross-linguistic knowledge,” “negative transfer,” and “writing competence.” The findings highlight significant CLI at the intermediate level, particularly in areas such as conjunction use, sentence structure complexity, avoidance of passive voice, and word repetition. These challenges stem primarily from differences in expression patterns between Chinese and English. Contrastive Analysis (CA) emerges as an effective tool for predicting errors, tailoring teaching materials, and explaining linguistic phenomena. However, research remains limited on how to enhance cross-linguistic awareness, especially in relation to intermediate-level features such as hypotactic and paratactic structures. The study underscores the need for more quantitative and empirical research to develop cross-linguistic competence and refine pedagogical strategies. Further exploration is essential to better understand how language differences influence writing performance and to create effective instructional approaches that address intermediate-level CLI.

INVESTIGATING PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN L2 AND L3 AMONG MANDARIN SPEAKERS IN HONG KONG: A CASE STUDY

2025-03-20T18:43:36+02:00

This study aims to determine how Mandarin speakers (MS) in Hong Kong (HK) acquire English (L2) and Cantonese (L3) pronunciation features, how the three languages interact in their language learning process, and to identify the pronunciation-related adjustment approaches that MSs use to overcome L2 and L3 pronunciation challenges. Five MSs in HK who had learned L2 for around 15 years were recruited. Three of them were at the intermediate stage of L3 learning and had learned L3 for 4 years. Two participants were at the beginning stage of L3 learning and had learned L3 for less than 6 months. All participants performed Mandarin, English, and Cantonese speech tasks and answered a questionnaire investigating MSs’ L2 and L3 pronunciation-related adjustment strategies and language learning experience. Acoustic results of the speech tasks identified cross-linguistic influence patterns from their first language (L1) to L3, from L2 to L3, and from L1 to L2 and then to L3. L3 beginners reported that they frequently used L2 sounds to learn L3 instead of using L1. However, MSs whose L3 was at the intermediate stage did not use their L1 or L2 features to learn L3, except for Cantonese tones. For the pronunciation-related adjustment strategies, the L3 beginners tended to rely on the assistance of other languages when communicating with HK Cantonese speakers using their L2 and L3. But the MSs who were at the intermediate stage of L3 learning rarely used other languages or code-mixing and tended to adjust their own speech (e.g., reducing accents, utilizing repetition, and embedding pausing).

MULTIMODALITY AND MEDIATION IN THE POLICIES REGULATING THE OFFICIAL SCHOOLS OF LANGUAGES: THE CASE OF THE VALENCIAN COMMUNITY

2025-03-12T13:21:52+02:00

Since its recent implementation in the education curriculum as an independent language activity, mediation is currently the fifth language-related skill learnt and evaluated at the Official Schools of Languages in the Valencian Community (Conselleria d’Educació, Cultura i Esport, 2019a). Although this might be regarded as a positive change in line with new pedagogical trends (Catalayud-Díez, 2019) that foster plurilingual and pluricultural competence development (Council of Europe, 2020), the fact that mediation is approached as being purely linguistic does not correlate with the characteristics and needs of the 21st century, in particular, the call for multimodal literacies (Jewitt, 2008). The present study approaches mediation from the perspective of social semiotic multimodal analysis and its implications within the legislation regulating the Official Schools of Languages in the Valencian Community. Particularly, the fundamental goals of this study are (1) to find out how mediation is conceived in the legislation of the mentioned context, (2) whether multimodality is considered and, if so, (3) what multimodal aspects are acknowledged. As a first step, this study includes a literature review on the concept of multimodality and its relationship with mediation within the educational landscape. In addition, we performed a thematic analysis of the legal documents that regulate this official non-compulsory education context. Our findings revealed inconsistent terminology, misalignment between mediation guidelines and evaluation criteria, and both limited and incoherent references to multimodality. Therefore, a shift from the traditional way of approaching language skills towards a multimodal approach in this education context (Ciaramita, 2023) is key to conform to the linguistically diverse and technological society we live in (Alfonso-Lozano & Giralt-Lorenz, 2014).

LANGUAGE SHIFT AND ATTITUDINAL DYNAMICS AMONG UKRAINIAN FEMALE WAR REFUGEES IN LITHUANIA

2025-04-13T13:08:01+03:00

This article examines the change in language attitudes and practices among Ukrainian war refugees who arrived in Lithuania seeking for shelter. Russia’s invasion into Ukraine forced thousands of civilians to seek asylum globally. Within the Baltic countries, Lithuania became an especially tempting locality for the refugees because of the language factor. Most Ukrainians are bilinguals, with Russian as part of their linguistic repertoire, which facilitated communication with Lithuanians due to their shared history of using Russian during the soviet era. The issue of language in Ukraine has deep historical roots. This study describes the way two main languages in Ukraine (Ukrainian and Russian) have coexisted during various stages of the nation’s independent history. To understand the evolving language attitudes and preferences of Ukrainian war refugees, semi-structured interviews were conducted in Lithuania in the summer of 2023. It is noteworthy that all participants were women, reflecting the unique characteristic of the 2022–2023 Ukrainian refugee wave, which consisted predominantly of women and children. For the majority of the research participants— primarily from the eastern regions of Ukraine—Russian is their first language. The study results reveal that although many Ukrainian refugees initially rely on Russian to facilitate communication, the majority are gradually transitioning to Ukrainian. The data suggest that this shift cannot happen instantly, considering the diverse multinational and multilingual profiles of Ukrainians. However, the traumatic experiences of enemy’s occupation, refuge, lost family members and homes have significantly impacted individuals’ aspirations to undergo linguistic and identity transformations. Most of the participants stress an urgent need to preserve the Ukrainian language and culture, as the most powerful factors of their national identity.

BILINGUALISM IN THE JORDANIAN-RUSSIAN FAMILY RESIDING IN JORDAN AND ITS IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION BETWEEN ITS MEMBERS

2025-02-20T09:16:20+02:00

This research examines bilingualism in Jordanian-Russian families in Jordan, focusing on its impact on family interaction, cultural identity, and everyday communication. Using a qualitative approach that included interviews, participant observation, and language diaries, the study analyzed language use patterns within the family. The results showed that intersentential code-switching was the most common strategy, with children frequently alternating between Arabic and Russian within the same sentence. This strategy aligns with the Equivalence Constraint Theory, which posits that switching occurs at points where the grammatical structures of both languages align. For example, one child reported starting a sentence in Arabic and ending it in Russian due to the deeper meaning certain words convey in each language. Additionally, situational code-switching was observed, as children adjusted their language use based on the context, particularly when accommodating their parents’ varying proficiency levels, reflecting Communication Accommodation Theory. The study also found that bilingualism significantly affects the formation of children’s cultural identity, with some children developing a dual affiliation while others lean toward a single cultural identity. For example, children immersed in Jordanian society and Arabic-dominant settings identified more closely with Jordanian culture, while those with stronger ties to their Russian-speaking mothers and frequent visits to Russia maintained a deeper connection to Russian culture. The research highlights the challenges faced by Russian mothers in maintaining their native language at home and the importance of a supportive environment for bilingualism. It recommends enhancing parents’ understanding of the impact of bilingualism on their children, promoting balanced educational methods for integrated language development, and developing educational resources to support learning Russian alongside Arabic in the Jordanian context.

A PRISM OF IDENTITIES IN MOTION: LANGUAGE ATTITUDES AND SELF-REFLECTION IN IMMIGRANT WOMEN THROUGH THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE

2025-02-25T15:56:39+02:00

Whilst the social integration and sociolinguistic state of Lithuania’s largest national and ethnic minorities have received considerable academic attention in recent decades, studies on first-generation adult immigrants from all over the world have primarily discussed their challenges, motivations, and attitudes towards the Lithuanian language or learning it. However, a holistic investigation into first-generation adult immigrants’ self-reflection on their migration story, identity development, and interpersonal relationships through the Lithuanian language is currently overlooked. The article aims to explore language attitudes and identity as intertwined elements in first-generation adult immigrants’ understanding of themselves and Lithuanian society. Ten first-generation adult immigrant women were recruited for a pilot study and completed a questionnaire consisting of four sections: personal biography, language repertoire, Lithuanian language learning, and identity in transformation. Then, they participated in semi-structured interviews to share memories and future projections. Language attitudes are discussed in the article following the theoretical framework of three dimensions: cognitive, affective, and behavioral attitudes. The data show that the Lithuanian language is necessary to feel integrated and show respect to the country, however, the process of reevaluation of identity requires not only the learner’s efforts but also the encouragement of a supportive network of peers and relatives. Overall attitudes are positive, and learning Lithuanian, together with codifying cultural constructs, helps achieve the women’s feeling of personal independence to function in society as active citizens, not as temporary guests. Experiences with the COVID-19 outbreak, the importance of using digital learning tools, and the role of the acquired family are some of the factors influencing the development of new identities that emerged as a result of the research.

CENSORSHIP AND SELF-CENSORSHIP IN INTERWAR AND SOVIET-ERA TRANSLATIONS FROM FRENCH INTO LITHUANIAN

2025-02-21T08:48:28+02:00

Translation is part of the polysystem of society and is therefore linked to other systems, such as political and ideological power, economics, literature, socio-cultural factors, etc. As it develops together with society, translation constantly changes and undergoes transformations specific to a certain historical period and reflects the particularities of a country's polysystems and socio-semiotic norms. The latter is reflected in different forms of translation, including both censorship and self-censorship. This study aims to analyse and compare censorship and self-censorship in the translations of canonical French literature into Lithuanian during the interwar and Soviet era, as well as to discuss the reasons, similarities and differences for the censorship and self-censorship of the research material within the broader context of the Polysystem Theory, socio-semiotic norms of translation, and the political powers of each period. To achieve this aim, the following objectives have been set: 1) to theoretically discuss the topic based on the Polysystem Theory, the socio-semiotic norms of translation, and other current scientific research on the topic of censorship; 2) to investigate mechanisms of selection of Lithuanian publications and censorship of translations during the periods from 1918 to 1940 and from 1940 to 1990; 3) to analyse the presence of censorship and self-censorship in the research material; 4) to compare censorship and self-censorship in translations from French into Lithuanian during the interwar and Soviet era in Lithuania, and to identify the reasons for their application, as well as their similarities and differences within a broader political, ideological, and sociocultural context. The aim and objectives of the study are achieved using the methods of scientific literature analysis, comparative and descriptive analysis. The research material consists of a representative amount of original and translated texts: the novel of Stendhal “Le Rouge et le Noir” (The Red and the Black) and its three translations into Lithuanian “Raudona ir juoda” (1939, 1949, 1976); “Le Nœud de vipères” (The Knot of Vipers) by François Mauriac and two translations of this book “Gyvačių lizdas” (1934) and “Gyvačių kamuolys” (1975); “Colomba” (Colomba) by Prosper Mérimée and two translations, both named “Kolomba” (1937, 1947); novel by Guy de Maupassant “Pierre et Jean” (Pierre et Jean) and translations “Pjeras ir Žanas” (1937, 1988); „Le Tartuffe ou l’Imposteur“ (Tartuffe, or The Impostor, or The Hypocrite) by Molière and its translations into Lithuanian “Tartifas ir Veidmainys” (1928) and “Tartiufas arba Apgavikas” (1967). The total size of the research material in both languages is 3 922 pages. A comparative analysis of censorship and self-censorship in the translation of French literary texts into Lithuanian revealed that during the periods from 1918 to 1940 and from 1940 to 1990 Lithuanian translators aimed to adjust translations to the polysystems of their society at the time and to control the unpredictability of translation while keeping in mind political, ideological and sociocultural norms of translation. All the examples of translations of canonical French literature into Lithuanian suggest that during the interwar, censorship primarily targeted politically unacceptable revolutionary parts of the originals; whereas during the Soviet era, religious, political and ethical censorship became more widespread. Furthermore, the research showed that translators of the interwar chose self-censorship more than translators of the Soviet era. It could have links with quite an obvious tendency during those years to adapt translations and make them as comprehensive as possible with the systematic cultural knowledge of the majority of readers at the time.

GUIDING LEARNERS IN USING MACHINE TRANSLATION FOR SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE CASE AT MALAYSIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

2024-06-28T09:15:00+03:00

This study examines the instructional methods employed by university educators in Malaysia to facilitate learners' use of machine translation (MT) in acquiring second or foreign language. The research aimed to delineate the effective strategies and techniques employed by instructors to steer learning, while also finding out the challenges and obstacles encountered throughout the instructional process. The researchers used a case study approach involving observations and interviews with four university instructors who incorporated MT into their second and foreign language classes. They were observed three times for the duration of one semester (14 weeks). Teaching observations focused on how the instructors guided learners in using MT with different strategies and techniques. At the same time, learners' reactions were also recorded accordingly. It was found that instructors used several strategies and guidance methods such as drawing comparisons and parallels between MT and textbook output, carrying out whole class discussions and providing oral feedback on MT output. Additionally, direct instruction, oral guidelines, confidence building, and small group discussions were tapped upon for optimum intended learning outcomes. In implementing these strategies, instructors confronted several challenges, namely, learners’ inability to use effective contextual translation and limited knowledge in discerning accuracy of MT output. Instructors also noted the learners’ reckless use and sparse awareness of MT literacy. The study postulates the imperative need for both instructors and learners to enhance digital literacy. This will enable instructors to adeptly steer learners in leveraging MT for learning purposes, while empowering them to employ MT judiciously, to comprehend its constraints, and to integrate it synergistically with other language acquisition methodologies, thereby fostering enhanced learning outcomes. The study has implications for language educators and curriculum designers interested in incorporating technology into language teaching and learning.