The Relationship Between Students’ Perception of a School as a Caring Community and Academic Motivation

Annotation. This paper examines the relationship between students’ perception of school as a caring community and their motivation in the academic domain. Data were collected using a questionnaire among 434 students of upper primary school grades from Croatia. The results of the research indicate that students who perceive school as a caring community more positively are more autonomously motivated to perform school obligations.


Introduction
Children and young people spend a significant part of their lives in school, and its social function, which takes place through interpersonal relationships among students, teachers, parents, and other key stakeholders in the educational process, becomes more evident. The classroom is not only an academic context, but also includes humanistic values related to learning about life (Yunusa et al., 2011). By staying in the classroom and school, students learn to live together, while adults, especially teachers, set an example and unquestionably can contribute to the development of the students' sense of community. According to Sheers (2010), a sense of school community can be defined as a sense of school belonging, commitment, and participation. Sense of school community exists if students feel recognized, appreciated, and accepted by their teachers and other students (Schaps et al., 1997). According to Lickona and Davidson (2003), indicators of the school as a caring community are a sense of belonging and friendship among students (i.e. interpersonal relationships and mutual acceptance), mutual respect between students, students' positive relationships with teachers, other school members and school equipment, acceptance of rules and participation (i.e. student experience of shaping the environment), the experience of care and support among and by school staff and parents in the school.
According to Çinkir et al. (2016), in schools characterized by a developed sense of community, students treat each other with respect, they are caring and sharing. Also, grade repetitions and dropout rates in such schools are lower. Studies have confirmed the positive pedagogical implications of students' sense of community. Schools whose students have a strong sense of community have been found to have a lower incidence of problematic behaviour and violence, while on the other hand, students also achieve better academic success (Schaps, 2003;Sheers, 2010;Solomon et al., 2000;Tichnor-Wagner & Allen, 2016). On the other hand, lack of sense of school belonging may have negative implications on student's life satisfaction, interest in the learning activity, and self-awareness (Dukynaitė & Dudaitė, 2017). Expressing care and respect in the mutual relations of teachers and other significant adults in school and their relationship towards students undoubtedly reflects on the quality of interpersonal relations between students, students' relations towards teachers and other school staff, as other related factors such as students' motivation to perform academic obligations.
According to Deci and Ryan (2000), individuals may differ by type of motivation, i.e. by reasons why they behave in a certain way. Transferred to an academic environment such as school, students may differ by reasons why they perform their school tasks. According to self-determination theory, individuals who are externally motivated to learn certain content or perform certain activities may perceive them as controlling or, on the other hand, may have a sense of choice in decision-making, i.e. a sense of autonomy. In the above theory, the emphasis is placed on the degree of self-determination or autonomy of individual's actions. Four types of extrinsic motivation can be distinguished: external, introjected (adopted), identified, and integrated regulation of motivation. They are located on a self-determination continuum between amotivation (lack of intention or action) and intrinsic motivation. External and adopted regulation represent controlled forms of motivation where individuals have an external sense of control. External regulation represents the least self-determined type of extrinsic motivation. Externally motivated individuals perceive their own behaviour as externally controlled and therefore direct it to meet externally set requirements in order to be rewarded or avoid a sanction (e.g. students performing a school assignment in order to be rewarded). Introjected or adopted regulation is a relatively controlled form of extrinsically regulated motivation. The behaviour of individuals motivated in such way is directed towards maintaining self-esteem and a sense of self-worth, that is, towards avoiding feelings of shame or anxiety (e.g. student performing school assignment because he would feel ashamed if he received a poor grade). Identified regulation represents more autonomous type of extrinsic motivation. These are individuals who consider externally set behaviours and opinions important but do not necessarily accept them as their own. Integrated regulation represents the most autonomous type of extrinsic motivation. Individuals motivated in such way consider externally set behaviours or opinions important for the achievement of personal goals and accept them as their own. According to Deci andRyan (2001, as cited in Sviben, 2006), the self-determination continuum is not developmental in nature, but individuals, depending on their previous experiences and situational factors, can adopt an externally set rule at any of these levels. Research has also shown that integrated regulation is rarely present in the schoolchildren population and intrinsic motivation is preferably included in research as children fulfil school assignments because they show interest in performing them and because of inner satisfaction (Ryan et al., 2000, as cited in Sviben, 2006. Self-determination theory is important in the educational process, especially where students do not find learning tasks interesting or where they do not represent a source of enjoyment. According to Deci andRyan (2002, as cited in Koh &Frick, 2010), controlling actions that can undermine an individual's autonomy include: competition, punishment or threat, extrinsic rewards, high-stakes testing, and imposed goals. According to Deci andRyan (1985, as cited in Yunusa et al., 2011), students who experience positive, sensitive, and responsive interaction with teachers report on greater teacher support and motivation in the academic domain. The affective dimension of the interpersonal teacher-student relationships positively affects student academic motivation (Federici & Skaalvik, 2013). Accordingly, research conducted in the Dutch context has shown that positive interpersonal relationships between teachers and pupils possitively affect pupils' intrinsic motivation (Opdenakker et al., 2012). The importance of involved and supportive teachers for student's motivation within academic context is recognised within self-determination theory (Maulana et al., 2013a;Maulana et al., 2013b;Stroet et al., 2013). Accordingly, research has found a positive relationship between student autonomous motivation and teacher relatedness, autonomy and competence support (Maulana et al., 2016). When it comes to academic motivation, peers also have important roles. Previous research has indicated a link between social and emotional peer support and motivational outcomes such as the pursuit of prosocial and academic goals, self-concept, and intrinsic value (Felner et al., 1985;DuBois et al., 1992;Wentzel, 1994;Harter, 1996).
In that regard, it does matter how students perceive the behaviour of teachers, as well as behaviour of other students in the classroom and school. According to Furrer and Skinner (2003), a sense of belonging and connection plays a key role in the development of children's motivation and is also linked to an interest in school, sense of self-efficiency and school engagement. Urdan and Schoenfelder (2006) assert an atmosphere of care as motivation stimulating element, along with a balance between important and challenging activities, and the sense of ownership over learning. "Learning is socially situated" (McCaslin & Good, 1996, 642) therefore school motivation can be understood if the social fabric is taken into account since it is woven into it (Weiner, 1990). In that regard, academic motivation cannot be viewed solely as a matter of the individual mental state, but rather within a complex network of social interpersonal relationships (Goodenow & Grady, 1993). Goodenow (1992) points out that students are more receptive to the school's goals and invest more effort if they feel accepted and respected by its members. On the other hand, students are more respectful and accepting of each other if they are more engaged in learning and academic work. Academic motivation and interpersonal relations are in a reciprocal relationship.
Although, the importance of interpersonal relationships in school not only for social and emotional development of students, but also for their academic progress is recognised, studies covering the link between caring relationships in school and academic motivation of students are less apparent. This research starts from the findings of the self-determination theory and places it in relation to the student perception of relations of caring community in school -among students, teachers, teachers and students, students and other school members, teachers and other school members.
The aim of this research is to examine the relationship between students' perception of school as a caring community and their academic motivation. The hypotheses were formulated with respect to the investigated variables and their dimensions, i.e. subdimensions: the occurrence of caring relationships in school: a) among and by students; and b) among and by adults in school and academic motivation considered at the level of: a) controlled and autonomous motivation; and b) at the level of their dimensionsexternal and introjected motivation, on the one hand, and identified and intrinsic motivation on the other. H1: It is assumed that there is no correlation between perception of care among and by students and controlled motivation and its sub-dimensions -external regulation and introjected regulation.
H2: It is assumed that there is a positive correlation between perception of care among and by students and autonomous motivation and its dimensions -identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. Students who perceive more positively interpersonal relationships by and among students and by and among teachers, parents and other school members show a higher degree of autonomous motivation by achieving higher results on the intrinsic motivation scale than on the identified regulation scale.
H3: It is assumed that there is no correlation between perception of care among and by adults in school and controlled motivation and its dimensions -external regulation and introjected regulation.
H4: It is assumed that there is a positive correlation between perception of care among and by adults in school and autonomous motivation and its dimensions -identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. Students who perceive interpersonal relationships more positively by and among students and by and among teachers, parents and other school members show a higher degree of autonomous motivation by achieving higher results on the intrinsic motivation scale than on the identified regulation scale.

Participants
The research included a total of 434 students of upper primary school grades in Zadar, Rijeka, and Zagreb, Croatia. By gender structure, the research included 203 (47%) boys and 230 (53%) girls. By age structure, the research covered approximately equal number of students. More precisely, there were 100 (23%) students of fifth grades, 119 (27%) sixth graders, 103 (24%) seventh grade students, and 112 (26%) eighth grade students.

Data Collection
The survey was conducted after the principals of the selected primary schools gave their consent for its implementation. Participants were informed about the purpose, voluntary nature, anonymity, and other relevant aspects of the research. The questionnaire was conducted in groups, at the end of regular classes.

Measures
Data were collected by a questionnaire consisting of several parts. In the introduction, along with general information and instructions on filling in the questionnaire, data on gender and current grade were collected. In order to examine the student perception of school as a caring community, the School as a Caring Community Profile -II (SCCP-II) created by Lickona and Davidson (2003) was used in the second part of the questionnaire. The original version of the tool consists of 42 statements that can be divided into several dimensions: students' friendship and belonging, students' appreciation, students' environment design, experience of support and care by and between parents, experience of support and care by and between teachers and school staff. The statements that refer to student assessments were selected and partially reformulated. These were 32 statements used to assess student perception of the quality of caring interpersonal relationships at school (e.g. Pupils can talk to teachers about their problems, Pupils help each other, Teachers are trying hard to help those pupils who need additional help, Pupils cooperate well with each other, Teachers and school staff respect each other, Pupils are trying to positively influence the behaviour of other pupils). In answering the statements, students assessed the occurrence of caring relationships among school members on a five-point Likert scale. Based on the answers to the above statements, a factor analysis was performed by which two factors with characteristic root greater than one were extracted. 23 statements related to assessment of caring relationships among and by students form the first factor and explain 29% of the variance. The second factor, consisting of 9 statements examining the quality of caring relationships among and by adults in school, explain 17% of the variance. For the items of each of the two resulting factors, two separate reliability analyses were performed. Cronbach alpha was 0.97 for the first factor, and 0.87 for the second. Therefore it can be concluded that their reliability is satisfactory.
The Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Ryan & Connell, 1989) was used to examine students' academic motivation, examining different types of motivation regulation. It consists of 32 statements based on which the reasons why students fulfil their school obligations. It consists of four scales that refer to different styles of motivation regulation: • external regulation (9 items, e.g. …because I will get in trouble if I do not fulfil my school obligations); • introjected regulation (9 items, e.g. …because I will be ashamed if I don't fulfil my school obligations); • identified regulation (7 items, e.g. …because it is important to me to fulfil my school obligations); • intrinsic motivation (7 items, e.g. …because I love fulfilling my school obligations). A translation of the tool used by Sviben (2006) in her research was used and redesigned to be adapted for primary school students. Students responded to the statements by choosing one of the five answers choice expressed on the Likert scale, where 1 indicates complete disagreement, and 5 complete agreement. These statements can be grouped into four subscales, two for each type of motivation: controlled motivation scale, consisting of external regulation subscale and introjected regulation subscale, and autonomous motivation scale, consisting of identified regulation subscale and intrinsic motivation subscale. Reliability analysis was performed for each of these subscales and the following Cronbach alpha values were obtained: 0.84 for the external regulation, 0.85 for the introjected regulation, 0.86 for the identified regulation, and 0.87 for the intrinsic motivation. These values indicate that their reliability is satisfactory.

Data Analysis
The collected data were analysed using MS Excel and the STATISTICA package. Descriptive and correlation analysis procedures were used. More precisely, the analysis included frequencies, percentages, arithmetic means, standard deviations, Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient, and Pearson's correlation coefficient. First, a descriptive analysis was conducted to investigate the share of respondents by gender and grade, followed by an analysis of the average values and standard deviations at the level of individual scales and associated subscales. The reliability of the scales used was examined by calculating Cronbach's alpha coefficients. Correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between autonomous and controlled forms of academic motivation and their subscales and of assessment of school as a caring community, i.e. assessment of the quality of caring relationships among and by students and among and by adults in a school. Table 1 presents the results of descriptive statistics -the arithmetic mean and the corresponding standard deviations with respect to the average results of the assessment of school as a caring community and the degree of autonomy of academic motivation at the level of scales and subscales of the measuring tools. The results of students' assessment of school as a caring community and their academic motivation may indicate problem points, and thus areas where efforts need to be made for improvement in practice. As seen in Table 1, students assess the caring relationship among and by adults in school more positively compared to the assessment of caring interpersonal relationships among and by students. When it comes to motivation in the academic domain, students achieve slightly higher results on the scale of controlled motivation and almost equal on the subscale of external and introjected regulation of motivation. On the other hand, students differ significantly by the results achieved on the subscales of autonomous motivation, in favour of the identified regulation. Based on the results, educational efforts should be primarily focused on building and strengthening a culture of community and care among students and encouraging autonomous regulation of motivation with special emphasis on intrinsic motivation in the academic domain.

Results
A correlation analysis was conducted between students' academic motivation and perception of the quality of caring interpersonal relationships in school on two levels. On the one hand, the perception of care by and among students, and on the other hand, the perception of care by and among adults in school. Academic motivation is considered at the level of controlled and autonomous motivation, i.e. at the level of subscales for each of these types of academic motivation -external and introjected motivation on the one hand, and identified and intrinsic motivation on the other. Tables 2 and 3, a positive correlation between all examined variables was found and the numerical value of the coefficients ranged from 0.23 to 0.56. Specifically, the correlation coefficients between subscales related to perception of care by and among students and self-assessment of academic motivation ranged between 0.23 and 0.56, and those between perception of care among and by adults in school and academic motivation ranged between 0.29 and 0.52.

Variables
Caring-students  Table 2, a positive, moderately strong statistically significant correlation between the perception of care by and among students and autonomous motivation was found (r = 0.56). In other words, the more students experience the relationship of care by and among students, the higher the results on the scale of autonomous motivation. Also, the values of the correlation coefficients at the level of the autonomous motivation subscales were analysed. Regarding the identified motivation, a positive, moderately strong correlation with the perception of care among and by students was found (r = 0.49). A slightly higher correlation coefficient between the perception of care by and among students and intrinsic motivation was also found (r = 0.55). It is a medium-strong relationship.
On the other hand, when it comes to controlled motivation, a positive correlation with the perception of caring relationships by and among students in the school was also found (r = 0.30). However, this connection is weak. The analysis of the values of correlation coefficients at the level of subscales of controlled motivation revealed a positive but almost insignificant relationship between external regulation of motivation and the perception of care by and among students (r = 0.23). Also, the value of the correlation coefficient between introjected regulation and care among and by students is slightly higher and amounts 0.32. However, this is a weak connection.
The values of the correlation coefficients of the variables included in this analysis show these values are higher in more autonomous forms of student motivation, with a visible increase in introjected motivation, and especially identified and intrinsic motivation. Similar results were observed when analysing the relationship between the perception of care among and by adults and the motivation of students in the academic domain. As seen in Table 3, a positive statistically significant correlation between the perception of care by and among adults in school and autonomous motivation was found (r = 0.49). The correlation coefficient in that relationship is somewhat lower compared to the correlation coefficient obtained between the perception of care by and among students and autonomous motivation. However, it is also a medium-strong correlation. In other words, students who have experienced more care by and among adults in school achieve higher results on the scale of autonomous motivation. The values of the correlation coefficients were also analysed at the level of the autonomous motivation subscales. Regarding the identified motivation, a positive, moderately strong correlation with the perception of care among and by adults was found (r = 0.52). On the other hand, there was a somewhat lower correlation coefficient between the perception of care by and among adults in the school and intrinsic motivation (r = 0.41). It is also a medium-strong relationship. As for controlled motivation, a positive correlation with the perception of caring relationships by and among adults in school was found (r = 0.35), which is somewhat stronger than the connection with students' assessment of care by and among students in school. However, that connection is also weak. Analysis of the values of correlation coefficients at the level of subscales of controlled motivation revealed a positive but almost insignificant relationship between external regulation of motivation and care by and among adults in school (r = 0.29). On the other hand, the value of the correlation coefficient between introjected regulation and assessment of care among and by adults in school is slightly higher (r = 0.37). However, this is a weak connection.

Table 3 Correlation Between Academic Motivation and Students' Perception of Care Among and by Adults
Comparing the results of the first and second correlation analyses, similar trends can be observed. Namely, considering the connection between students' perception of care between and by students and their academic motivation, an increase in the value of correlation coefficients can be observed in more autonomous forms of motivation regulation. Specifically, the lowest correlation of the perception of care by and among students was determined in relation to the results achieved by students on the controlled motivation subscale, with a visible increase when it comes to introjected motivation, and especially identified and intrinsic motivation. A similar trend can be observed by considering the association between student perception of care between and by adults in school and their academic motivation. The difference compared to the analysis of the previous connection is in the strength of the connection between the perception of care and autonomous motivation and intrinsic motivation which are somewhat lower.

Discussion
The research presented in this paper refers to the examination of the relationship between the perception of school as a caring community and the academic motivation of students in the upper grades of primary school, i.e. the reasons why students perform their school tasks. The experience of school as a caring community was examined on two levels: at the level of experiencing caring relationships by and among students, and at the level of experiencing caring relationships between and by adults in the school. The academic motivation of students has been examined on several levels. First, at the level of two scales -the scale of autonomous motivation and the scale of controlled motivation. Second, at the level of their sub-dimensions: on the subscales of external and introjected regulation as well as identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. The results indicate the existence of a positive correlation between all examined variables. However, they differ significantly according to the strength of the relationship.
The assumption that there is no connection between controlled motivation in the academic domain and the perception of care by and among students in school has been rejected. The analysis confirmed the existence of a statistically significant correlation between the perception of caring relationships between and by students and controlled motivation, although only at the level of a statistical trend. A statistically significant positive but by value of the correlation coefficient almost insignificant correlation was established between the perception of care between and by students and the external regulation of motivation. On the other hand, when it comes to a more autonomous form of controlled motivation, i.e. introjected motivation, the correlation is somewhat higher, although it is also a weak connection. Another hypothesis that assumes the existence of a positive relationship between autonomous motivation and the perception of caring relationships by and among students has been confirmed. In other words, it was found that for students who assess the interpersonal relationships among and by students in school more positively as relationships of mutual care and support, motivation to perform school tasks is more autonomously regulated. It is a medium-strong relationship. Regarding the subtypes of autonomous forms of motivation, a positive, statistically significant medium-strong correlation between the perception of care by and among students and the identified regulation of motivation, on the one hand, and intrinsic motivation on the other was found.
The analysis confirmed the existence of a statistically significant, moderately strong correlation between the perception of caring relationships between and by adults and autonomous motivation. A statistically significant, moderately strong relationship was established between the perception of care among and by adults in school and the identified regulation. On the other hand, as for the most autonomous form of motivation, i.e. intrinsic motivation, the correlation is somewhat lower, although it is also a medium-strong relationship. The analysis also confirmed the existence of a positive, statistically significant correlation between the perception of caring relationships by and among adults in school and controlled motivation. However, this is a weak connection. Regarding the subtypes of controlled forms of motivation, a positive, statistically significant but by the level almost insignificant connection between the perception of care by and among adults in school and external regulation of motivation was established. A somewhat stronger relationship has been established between the perception of care in the adult population and the introjected motivation in the academic domain. However, this is a weak connection.
Obtained results can be partly explained by Schaps' (1998;2003) explanation that students present affiliation towards school values, goals, and rules when their psychological needs, such as the need for connection, belonging, and friendship, are met in school. Starting from the understanding that a sense of social support and belonging is considered important for the acceptance of socially desirable goals (Connell & Wellborn, 1991;Ford, 1992), Wentzel (1998) believes that the same assumptions are important for socially acceptable behaviour in school and motivation to succeed academically. Related to the above, children who feel relatedness have a strong sense of identity, commitment, and performance, experience themselves as more autonomous and competent, and are more intrinsically motivated (Osterman, 2000).
The results are in line with the findings that indicate the existence of a connection between positive relationships between teachers and students and among students themselves and school motivation (e.g. Osterman 2000; Schunk, et al., 2014). According to Deci andRyan (1985, as cited in Yunusa et al., 2011), students experiencing positive and responsive interaction with their teachers are also more academically motivated. The results of the study have shown that students show greater commitment to school activities if they feel respected and supported, i.e. if they experience care from teachers (Wentzel, 1997). Research conducted by Goodenow (1992) found that a sense of belonging to the school and a sense of warm personal connection with teachers and other people in the school can play a key role in developing and maintaining academic motivation especially in students without adequate academic support from their family.
Since students have a sense of school community when they feel accepted, respected, and supported by other students or teachers in the class (Schaps et al., 1997), it is very important that they experience this on a daily basis by and among students and adults in the school. This implies the importance of care in relationships among students and between students and adults in school in order to encourage their academic motivation with special emphasis on autonomous forms of motivation. Teachers are most responsible for creating basic motivational conditions, i.e. conditions for encouraging and maintaining student motivation (Dörnyei, 2001), and they should certainly take into account not only academic support, but also socio-emotional support in the form of caring relationships with students characterized by closeness, friendship, warmth, belonging, respect, acceptance, trust, participation, cooperation, and support.

Conclusion
The aim of this empirical study was to examine the relationship between student perception of school as a caring community and their motivation to perform school tasks. The relevance of research of the relationship between these constructs is based on the understanding that the obtained results can contribute to the professional development of teachers and all other school members whose behaviour and example set an educational model for students. It was found that students who experienced greater care in interpersonal relations among and by students on one side, and adults in school on the other, show a higher level of autonomous motivation, i.e. higher level of the identified and intrinsic motivation. When it comes to controlled forms of motivation, i.e. external and introjected motivation, a positive correlation has been found with the students' perception of caring relationships among and by students and adults in the school as well, but the correlations were much weaker. Overall, research results support the fact that students who perceive school as a caring community more positively are more autonomously motivated to perform school obligations. The pedagogical contribution of this research consists in gaining insight into the current state of student perception of school as a caring community and their academic motivation. This can serve as a starting point for building and strengthening school community, and thus encouraging student motivation to perform school tasks, with special emphasis on autonomous forms of motivation. The research tools used in this study can be used by teachers, pedagogues, psychologists, and other educators in the school to self-evaluate the current situation in their schools as a basis for planning, implementing, and (re)evaluating strategies aimed at strengthening the school community and student motivation. The results have important implications for recognizing the importance of building a school as a caring community in relation to autonomous forms of student motivation in the academic domain. Confirming the assumption that students who are more likely to see the school as a place of caring community by students, teachers and other school members are also more autonomously motivated to perform school tasks, not only explains the role and importance of school community but also indicates the possibility of encouraging autonomous forms of motivation in the academic domain. The results of this research, along with other studies about the role of caring relations in school on academic motivation, indicate the importance of the student's experience of socio-emotional support for autonomous motivation within school community. In that regard, the key role is played by teachers and other educational staff in the school who, by expressing concern in everyday interpersonal relationships at the school, can serve as an example to students attending the school. Based on these results, future research could be focused on examining an older population of respondents, such as high school and university students, the inclusion of other potentially relevant variables, and the use of qualitative research methods.