The Effectiveness of Principal Leadership Styles in Crisis Management

Annotation. The research aimed to explore the types of effective principal leadership styles in crisis management at school. Data analysis using structural equation modeling. The results showed that transformational leadership had a strong positive effect on crisis management, charismatic leadership and transactional leadership had a positive but weak effect on crisis management. In contrast, entrepreneurial leadership had a negative but weak effect on crisis management.


Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has rendered the contemporary world almost entirely unpredictable. The large numbers of victims and the varied socio-economic impacts have made people more worried, especially given the speed with which the virus spread around the world. The entire social structure is scientifically dealing with COVID-19, treating its victims, and working to return to post-pandemic conditions as quickly as can safely be achieved. These actions are not merely carried out in the health sector but in many others: social, cultural, educational, political, legal, security, and so on (Hidayat et al., 2020).
In education, the COVID-19 pandemic has wreaked havoc on the very structure of education (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2020). In the face of that turmoil, quick decisions and effective solutions are required to prioritize the welfare of leaders, teachers, students, families, and all other stakeholders involved in restarting school activities (Harris & Jones, 2020). Teachers must carry out their pedagogical and assessment duties using alternative methods (König et al., 2020). Students must also adapt, whether they are able to learn enough at home through online classes or need a combination of in-person and remote learning to obtain a satisfactory learning experience (Dwivedi et al., 2020). COVID-19 led to the emergence of new schools without standardized leadership, preparation or development, inspection framework, key performance indicators, or benchmarks (Harris & Jones, 2020). These conditions led to new patterns of work in education (Dwivedi et al., 2020).
Responding to the COVID-19 crisis was not only necessary but also urgent. Comprehensive handling is called crisis management (Hidayat et al., 2020). In schools, a crisis is an urgent situation that requires school leaders to take quick and decisive action (Smith & Riley, 2012). The three key components that define a crisis are: (1) threats to an organization's high-priority values; (2) several castings and limited time for optimal responses; (3) and unexpected responses (Bowers et al., 2017;Williams et al., 2017). The organization needs to take several actions: define the assessment process of risk, which enables understanding the overall threat, the vulnerability of critical activities, and potential sources of supports (Hamidovic, 2012); analyze the cause, understand the consequences, grasp the crisis prevention strategy, and adjust the normalization point (Shrivastava et al., 2013); and, eventually, restore the system to alignment (Williams et al., 2017).
The type of behavioral leadership is important in determining an organization's performance (Teo et al., 2017). Each leadership style has been mapped through a variety of approaches using different classifications and categories, with different leadership styles of leadership most effective in different situations (Bowers et al., 2017). Leaders need to focus on this issue in their own organization. They must have special skills to prepare, manage, and find solutions to possible crises that threaten their organization's existence (Harwati, 2013). Schools are no exception to this general rule, and the details of crisis management in an educational leadership contexts need to be further investigated. The present study addresses four leadership styles: charismatic, entrepreneurial, transformative, and transactional. The reason for those choices is that they are the four most commonly used leadership styles in education. Based on the research focus, this study aimed to identify and exploit leadership types that are most effective in crisis management. This research can help determine which leadership styles have significant positive effects on crisis management. The research questions are as follows: 1 . Is there any significant relationship between charismatic leadership and crisis management?
2. Is there any significant relationship between entrepreneurial leadership and crisis management? 3. Is there any significant relationship between transformative leadership and crisis management? 4. Is there any significant relationship between transactional leadership and crisis management? 5. Which leadership type has the strongest relationship to crisis management?
There are many definitions of leadership, and writers use their own perspectives and their view of the most interesting phenomena to define leadership. Theories of leadership styles have been developed (Bass & Avolio, 1994), and leadership is the most significant branch of management studies (Weihrich et al., 2008). It is a reciprocal process of social effects (Jeremy, 2012;Silva, 2016). In the educational context, leadership influences teachers, students, and other stakeholders and is not limited to a single person. Ideally, the influencing process should lead to a climate of effective learning experiences that create value-added responses to all stakeholders' interests and keep all the organizations in schools (monitoring the learning process, managing personnel, allocating resources, and so on) running smoothly (Daniels et al., 2019).
This type of leadership is a combination of various traits, characteristics, and behaviors used by a leader to collaborate effectively with those being led (Jeremy, 2012) to achieve organizational goals . Leadership styles can contribute effectively to determining organizational performance (Al Khajeh, 2018). Contingency theory explains that not all leaders may have the same level of skills and competencies when facing a crisis or challenging environment (Taormina & Taormina, 2008). This research's leadership styles are charismatic, entrepreneurial, transformative, and transactional Leadership in dealing with the crisis, as shown in Figure 1.
Charismatic leaders are good at inspiring followers to speak optimistically about what needs to be achieved in the future and instilling in their followers' positive ideals associated with desired outcomes (Shao et al., 2017). Using evolutionary psychology terminology, the writer defines charismatic leadership as a signaling process in which a leader conveys his or her ability to solve pressing challenges of coordination and cooperation in groups. This process is context-dependent but essentially consists of: (1) drawing attention to recruiting followers; (2) harnessing the extraordinary abilities of rhetoric and knowledge of cultural symbols and rituals to inspire and offer a vision; (3) minimizing perceived risk and cooperation; and (4) aligning these followers towards common goals (Grabo & Van, 2016). There are four aspects in this style: (1) individual traits, it is the unique set of skills and abilities the leader possesses; (2) follower behavior, it is how and why followers are motivated; (3) organizational or contextual influence, it is the extent to which the leader interacts with the needs of followers and organizational goals; (4) results, it is linking leader's charisma to measures of success such as increased team productivity or job satisfaction (Grabo et al., 2017).
The concept of transformative leadership systematically attempts by leaders to transform members to share organizational goals from desires in themselves. This behavior is characterized by transformational behavior because leaders are expected to see a clear vision as an important driver of unselfish employee action (Jensen et al., 2016). Transformational leadership focuses on developing teams and taking their needs into account. Leaders who focus on transformational leadership focus primarily on developing a system of values, morality, skills, and team members' motivation levels (Al Khajeh, 2018). Transformational behavior is essentially developed into four characteristics; idealized organizational influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulus, and individual attention (Cho et al., 2019).
Transactional leaders are always willing to give something in return (Al Khajeh, 2018). It can include several things like promotions, raises, performance reviews, extra responsibilities, etc. This leadership strategy conceptualizes behavior that seeks to meet employees' higher needs to involve them in achieving organizational goals (Jensen et al., 2016). Higher employee perceptions of aid and fairness in the organization through leaders' transactional behavior increase their affective organizational commitment (Cho et al., 2019).
Entrepreneurial leadership helps create an encouraging atmosphere to change and innovate in schools (Wahab & Tyasari, 2020). It will achieve the mindset of entrepreneurial leadership through the development of strategic resource management. Entrepreneurial thinking and the ability to manage strategic resources will increase creativity and innovation to positively impact organizational performance (Agung et al., 2020). He then separated this leadership style into four dimensions: explorers, miners, accelerators, and integrators. It aims to combine these dimensions with "general entrepreneurial leadership behavior (Pihie, 2017).

Crisis Management
A crisis is an abnormal, unstable, and complex situation that inherently represents a threat to an organization's strategic objectives, reputation, or existence. It can cause financial loss and damage the organization's reputation, whether physical, financial, or emotional (Salvador et al., 2017), and routine procedures cannot resolve it. A crisis is not identically an incident, and some argue their management presents special challenges requiring a different approach (Hamidovic, 2012). Thus, understanding, managing, and intervening in a crisis is a critical challenge for all stakeholders involved. To capture crisis management and organizational response nuances, it is helpful to look at crisis management from a multi-level and multidisciplinary perspective, including the individual, organizational, and institutional levels (Liu & Froese, 2020).
The attributes and skills needed for school leadership in crisis are fundamentally different from management in a regular school environment. It is associated with strong school leadership in dealing with events, emotions, and consequences in the upcoming times by minimizing personal and organizational harm to the school and community. Crisis in many forms is bound to occur in schools, no matter how well they are led and managed. Many crises occur without any warning; others gradually emerged. Some crises can be resolved quickly, while others can take a longer time (Smith & Riley, 2012) There is very little literature for this paper, either books or academic articles, specifically the examples of crises in schools and their communities. However, Whitla's Crisis Management and the School Community has provided a series of real-life school-based case studies to understand the nature of school-based crises. The cases offered such as a teacher who commits suicide in school; four students died in a car accident; serious gang fights at school; teachers fired and then threatened their schools with bombs; student who was kidnapped; students killed on their way home from school; the fire that burned many schools; a student who accidentally drowned in a school camp; someone with a gun holding a teacher and two students' hostage; and a student got lost in the snow on a school trip (Whitla, 2003). Another study also revealed that crisis management in schools related to the main driving factor that causes schools to fail to deal with crises. It is schools where they cannot catch early warning signals of a crisis, the inability or reluctance of leaders to see the world objectively and change the culture. School organization to align with new realities (Murphy & Meyers, 2009). In this study, the crisis that occurred is the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which had brought chaotic situation and required new methods of school to survive (Dwivedi et al., 2020).
Components in crisis management include preparing for crises, facing crises, and recovering from the crisis. Preparing for a crisis is preparation for facing a crisis by involving the construction and consideration of various relevant scenarios. Responding to a crisis is a second thing done in several stages; get the facts, implement relevant contingency plans, or quickly adapt to deal with the current situation, be assertive, show concern, and communicate. The next thing is to recover from the crisis. After a crisis, everything needs to get back to 'normal' as fast as possible (Smith & Riley, 2012).
Crisis management builds on and complements emergency management routines and structures, and it is also providing selective adaptation to the specific circumstances of a crisis or disaster ( Van & Kapucu, 2011). Leadership in crisis is how a leader prepares himself for fast change and reacts decisively and appropriately (Smith & Riley, 2012). Leaders must work together and communicate crisis management both internally and externally (Taneja et al., 2014).
Based on the review of related literature, the conceptual framework proposed to test the hypothesis can be illustrated in Figure 1.

Methodology
Research Population and Sample: the study's population comprised teachers and teaching staff at the junior and senior high school levels at the Thursina International Islamic Boarding School with 325 people. The research sample was selected by systematic random sampling of 100 people. The demographics sample consists of 61 men (61%) and 39 (39%) women. The respondents were 78 people (78%) teachers and 22 (22%) teaching staff from the work type. Based on the working years, 33 people (32%) were over five years, and 67 people (67%) were under five years). The data were collected in September 2020.
This study investigated four leadership styles: charismatic leadership, entrepreneurial leadership, transformative leadership, and transactional leadership as an independent factor and crisis management as a dependent factor. Participants were asked to rate how important each item was according to a 5-point scale, starting from point 1, which strongly disagree, to point 5, which strongly agree.
Data Analysis: Data analysis using structural equation modeling with Smart PLS-SEM 3.0. and processed in two stages. The first stage evaluated the measurement model (other models), consisting of convergent validity, discriminant validity, consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity (Hamid et al., 2019).
The second stage was the evaluation of the structural model (inner model), there are several criteria in the assessment of the structural model: (1) to measure the significance by using a significant value, the t-value must be greater than 1.96 and p must be less than 0.05 (Hair et al., 2014), (2) Analysis of the coefficient of determination (R-Square), which is to show the ability of how much exogenous or independent variables are in predicting endogenous or dependent variables and showing the strength of the model made, according to (Wynne, 1998) R2 values of 0.67, 0.33 and 0.19 were assessed as substantial, moderate and weak, and (3) Path Coefficient values that indicate the direction of the relationship between variables and the significant magnitude of the influence of each variable. According to (Cohen, 1988) f-squared 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 can be assessed as weak, moderate, and strong effects.

Measurement Model (Outer Model)
The Smart PLS 3.0 program on the PLS Algorithm measured the standard value estimation model such as loading factor, internal consistency reliability, discriminant validity, and convergent validity.
Convergent validity was used to measure the validity of the reflective indicator as a variable measure, and convergent validity can be seen from the value of the loading factor value on each variable indicator. According to (Sarwon, 2016), the outer loading value = 0.5 can still be tolerated to be included in the model, while the outer loading value below 0.5 can be removed from the analysis. An indicator was said to have good validity if the outer loading value was above 0.70. This research variable was developed with 35 indicators; 32 indicators had a loading factor value > 0.7, while three indicators had a value of < 0.7, so they were eliminated. The internal consistency reliability and convergent validity values in table 2 were measured with the following conditions; Internal consistency was measured by an Alpha coefficient > 0.7  with an AVE value > 0.5 (Hair et al., 2014) (Urbach & Ahlemann, 2010). Therefore, the results of internal consistency reliability were acceptable. Measuring discriminant validity can be seen by using cross-loading between the indicator and the construct. In table 3 (appendix), the value of construct correlation (latent variable) on the indicator itself was higher than the correlation value for other construct indicators (latent variables). It showed that each latent construct used to predict the indicators in their respective constructs had a better value than other constructs' indicators.
To find out the strength of each indicator in measuring variables, it can be seen in Figure 2. By looking at the t-statistics. The greater the t-statistic, the greater the dominant indicator in measuring the variable.

Structure Model (Inner Model)
The structural model was the stage used to test the hypothesis in this study. As stated by (Ee et al., 2013); (Sang et al., 2010), structural models show a causal relationship between constructs, path coefficients (direct effects), and non-existent specific effects (mediation effect). The t-value must be greater than 1.96, and p must be less than 0.05. This provision followed the guidelines used by leading researchers in their recent study (Hair et al., 2014); (Henseler et al., 2009). Table 4 showed that the Transformational leadership variable had a significant positive effect on crisis management, charismatic leadership and transactional leadership had a positive but insignificant effect on crisis management. In contrast, entrepreneurial leadership had a negative effect on crisis management. The coefficient of determination (R2) showed the exogenous or independent variables' ability to predict the endogenous or dependent variables and show the model's strength. R2 was the best suitability value for the real empirical indicators achieved with values ranging from 0 to 1 (Hair et al., 2014). According to Falk and Miller (1992), the R-square value of 0.10 was acceptable. According to (Wynne, 1998), R2 values of 0.67, 0.33, and 0.19 were assessed as substantial, moderate, and weak, respectively. Table 5 showed that the exogenous crisis management variable had a substantial predictive value.
Path Coefficient values that indicated the direction of the relationship between variables and the significant magnitude of each variable's effect, according to Cohen (1988) f-squared 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, respectively, can be assessed as weak, moderate, and strong. Table 5 showed that transformational leadership had a powerful effect on crisis management, charismatic leadership, and transactional leadership had a weak effect on crisis management. In contrast, entrepreneurial leadership had a negative but weak effect on crisis management.

Discussion
The literature with various studies on effective school leadership types in facing crises is a fascinating study. The skills and attributes a school leader needs in crisis are fundamentally different from those generally required as part of a normal school environment (Smith & Riley, 2012). It is a fascinating study on how to find out school leadership in facing a crisis. This study has compared the types of leadership in managing crises due to the impact of COVID-19 (Table 4).
Charismatic leadership on crisis management: Charismatic leadership has a positive but insignificant effect on crisis management. Charismatic leaders are good at inspiring followers, speak optimistically on what needs to be achieved in the future, and instill their followers' positive ideals associated with the desired outcome (Shao et al., 2017). Thus, organizations are more enthusiastic about individuals who carry charisma and can modify and transform organizational tactics and culture and facilitate organizations to be more flexible towards the outside environment's needs in a crisis (Ayoub, 2017). In a study (Halverson et al., 2004), a crisis can cause followers to attribute a greater level of charisma to their leader, regardless of the leader's behavior; however, the level of stress and crisis also affects the action of the leader. Another study showed that tensions and misunderstandings in understanding the critical elements of synchronizing to a crisis are an extreme concern for charismatic leadership before or even during a crisis. The leader must start by providing a clear vision of the situation more than anything. A leader must monitor, control and guide the crisis strategy (Karim, 2016).
Entrepreneurial leadership on crisis management: entrepreneurial leadership harms crisis management. The ability of entrepreneurial leadership in terms of catalyst refers to the leader's organization's behavior and how the leader indirectly encourages change and opportunities. Alternatively, they stimulate innovation, new approaches, and entrepreneurial action among their subordinates by creating a supportive environment (Pihie, 2017). It makes the leader spend more time rather than other types of leadership. Time is one of the most valuable resources in a crisis, and it cannot be wasted to do needs analysis (Plessis & Keyter, 2020). One part of leadership behavior needed in facing a crisis is how strong leadership implements actions in a crisis, and timeline through a performance management scheme (Wino et al., 2020). In applying this assertive behavior, it must be precise to avoid destructive leadership. It is essential to highlight that the same type of behavior may not have the same impact in different contexts and situations. For example, a leader with fast and difficult decisions during a stressful situation can be considered constructive while the same leader can be regarded as destructive if he uses the same behavior when the case is less stressful (Fors, 2020).
Transformative leadership on crisis management: Transformational leadership has a significant positive effect on crisis management. This finding is in line with several previous studies, which examined the impact of transformational leadership on crisis management (Ayoub, 2017) (Alzoubi & Jaafar, 2020). Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence can bring success to work in conflict situations (Alhamani et al., 2020). Likewise, when a financial crisis occurs, transformative leadership is an essential part of effective leadership (Zhang et al., 2012). Transformational leadership with effective work procedures can also improve educational institutions' overall performance in crises (Ali & Mohammed, 2018). Transformational leadership in crisis conditions where leaders can use various mechanisms and strategic processes to improve understanding and substantive decision making, have collective support, have resilience, and build adaptive capacity when a crisis continues (Wardman, 2020).
Transactional leadership on crisis management: Transactional leadership has a positive but insignificant effect on crisis management (Table 4). The results of this study are in line with (Ayoub, 2017). Transactional leaders are responsible for enforcing routines by managing individual performance and facilitating group performance during the crisis stage. To provide returns, transactional leaders reward for excellent performance or withhold rewards such as remuneration, promotions during the post-crisis phase. Transactional leaders use rewards and punishments to gain compliance during the action stage to ensure timely, efficient, and practical implementation of mitigation strategies (Plessis & Keyter, 2020). These leaders focus on a small set of individual details; smart, follow the rules, and get the job done. Transactional leaders are bound by rules and regulations, making them unsuitable for managing the dynamics of most crises (Bowers et al., 2017).
The strongest leadership types in crisis management: Transformational leadership has a strong relationship in crisis management, transactional leadership has a moderate relationship, and charismatic leadership has a weak relationship, and entrepreneurial leadership has a weak negative relationship (Table 5). Various factors contribute to a strong influence on transformational leadership. The leader can strive to make all members of the organization work together towards the organization's vision. This condition is closely related to how communication skills and emotional intelligence convey ideas and values to motivate to achieve organizational goals during a crisis -the suitability of values between the leader and group members who act as a mediation mechanism. Moreover, combined with crises, emotional control is one of two crucial factors that play a moderating role in the relationship between transformational leadership and value appropriateness between leader and members (Zhang et al., 2012). A high level of emotional intelligence is a prerequisite for strengthening leadership practices, workplace performance, and member support for organizational goals aspired in conflict conditions (Alhamani et al., 2020). An effective leader has high emotional intelligence and competency and can demonstrate transformational leadership behavior (Maqbool et al., 2017).
In crisis conditions, transformative leadership can drive the team to achieve organizational goals of how leaders can build staff commitment in supporting managers and people in pioneering change (Mahfouz et al., 2019). Members no longer work with standard work patterns but finding new ways to get out of the crisis. In this case, a leader needs to develop competencies for both individuals and teams in crisis management to overcome various types of crises to return to normal organizational conditions (Mahfouz et al., 2019), with transformative leadership, the leader can have a positive impact on organizational learning and knowledge sharing (Khan & Khan, 2019).
In crisis management, the most powerful factor in having an impact on crisis management is the ability of the organization to organize various programs. These findings are consistent with how predetermined task-oriented leadership behavior has the highest level of impact on the effectiveness of crisis management (Kapucu & Ustun, 2018). In this condition, the organization has tried to learn from the crisis and has developed and defined a kind of "action plan" for future problems related to crisis management (Dos et al., 2016). In a crisis, there is no much time to identify and consider options. The implementation of carefully considered contingency plans means the members and other stakeholders are alert regarding what to do, and who should do it (Smith & Riley, 2012). Organizations with high reliability are more able to execute tasks in preventing a crisis (Bundy et al., 2017).

Conclusions
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed and knocked the bottom out of education structures. The principal's leadership role is to manage a crisis and bring the school to a normal point and the system back into harmony. Different types of leadership will be more effective in different conditions. This study indicates that transformational leadership has a significant positive effect and a strong relationship in crisis management. Essentially, the leader's ability to drive all organization members to work together towards the organization's vision out of crisis becomes the critical factor. In contrast, in crisis management, the most decisive factor in managing a crisis is the ability to organize and execute various high-reliability programs rapidly.

Limitations and Implications for Future Studies
Based on the research findings, the rules addressed are related to the principal and crisis management's leadership type. The population size is still within the school unit's scope to be enlarged by involving several schools in one province or country. The demographic data has not been used as a mediating variable in seeing the influence of leadership and crisis management, even though demographic data have been presented. Research related to crisis management is a very interesting topic since it is different from time to time, ranging from crisis impacts, conflict impacts, internal organizational problems, global economic conditions, natural disasters, conflicts, wars, and other conditions or internal organizational issues. Further research can enrich from various backgrounds and various effects of the crisis. It can involve mediator variables in exploring transformational leadership in crisis. It can be explored more deeply how transformative leadership works in managing crises in qualitative analysis to enrich the findings in the practical leadership topic in dealing with the crisis.